Thursday, 28 November 2024

Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga Helenae) The Bee Hummingbird is widely regarded as the smallest bird in the world. It is a fascinating creature, known not only for its size but also for its rapid wing beats, iridescent plumage, and specialized behavior. Here are the complete details about this remarkable bird:

 



Scientific Classification:

  • Kingdom: Animalia
  • Phylum: Chordata
  • Class: Aves
  • Order: Apodiformes
  • Family: Trochilidae (Hummingbirds)
  • Genus: Mellisuga
  • Species: Mellisuga helenae

Physical Description:

  • Size: The Bee Hummingbird is the smallest bird in the world, measuring approximately 2.4 inches (6 cm) in length. Males are slightly smaller than females.

  • Weight:

    • Male: 1.6–2.0 grams
    • Female: 2.0–2.4 grams
  • Plumage:

    • Male: Has an iridescent ruby-red throat (gorget) and a metallic greenish-blue body. The red coloration is especially vibrant during the breeding season.
    • Female: Less colorful than the male but still features beautiful greenish feathers on the back and wings, with a more muted coloration overall.
  • Bill: Long, thin, and specialized for extracting nectar from flowers. The bill is slightly curved, allowing the bird to reach deep into flowers while feeding.

  • Wings: The Bee Hummingbird’s wings are incredibly rapid, beating at a rate of around 70-80 times per second, which allows the bird to hover in mid-air. Its wings move in a figure-eight pattern, allowing it to fly forwards, backwards, and hover with ease.

Flight and Behavior:

  • Hovering: One of the Bee Hummingbird's most remarkable abilities is its capacity to hover. This is achieved through its unique wing mechanics, which allow it to generate lift on both the upstroke and downstroke of the wingbeat, unlike most other birds.

  • Speed: The Bee Hummingbird can fly at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), though it often hovers in place when feeding.

  • Feeding Behavior: The bird feeds primarily on nectar from flowering plants, using its specialized bill and tongue to extract the sugary liquid. It may also consume small insects, spiders, and other invertebrates for protein.

    • Diet Composition: Around 90% of the diet is nectar, while the remaining 10% consists of small insects and spiders, which provide the necessary protein for muscle function and growth.
  • Energy Requirements: Due to its high metabolism, the Bee Hummingbird needs to consume large amounts of food relative to its size. It may feed up to five to ten times per hour and consumes its body weight in nectar daily.

Habitat:

  • Range: The Bee Hummingbird is found only in Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth). This limited range makes it a species endemic to Cuba.

  • Habitat:

    • The species thrives in a variety of habitats, including tropical forests, gardens, and areas with dense flowering vegetation.
    • They prefer places with abundant nectar sources, such as flowering shrubs, trees, and tropical plants.

Breeding and Nesting:

  • Nesting: Bee Hummingbirds build small, cup-shaped nests, often using materials like plant down, spider silk, and feathers. The nests are typically placed on tree branches or shrubs, often hidden to protect from predators.

  • Eggs: The female lays two small, white eggs, about the size of a pea. Incubation lasts for 12–14 days, and both parents are involved in caring for the eggs and the chicks after they hatch.

  • Chick Development: The chicks are born altricial, meaning they are underdeveloped and rely on the mother for warmth and feeding. They fledge (leave the nest) after about 20–25 days.

Social Behavior:

  • Territorial: Bee Hummingbirds are highly territorial and will defend their feeding grounds aggressively. Males, in particular, guard patches of flowering plants from other males.

  • Communication: They communicate through vocalizations, but their most noticeable behavior is their aggressive aerial displays. The males often perform flight displays to attract females or defend their territories.

  • Social Structure: Though they are generally solitary, hummingbirds, including the Bee Hummingbird, may gather in groups during migration or when food resources are plentiful.

Conservation Status:

  • IUCN Status: The Bee Hummingbird is currently listed as Least Concern (LC) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), meaning that it is not immediately threatened with extinction.

  • Threats: While the species does not face significant threats at present, it may be vulnerable to habitat loss due to deforestation and environmental changes that affect the availability of nectar sources.

  • Population: Due to the bird's relatively small and confined range in Cuba, the total population is somewhat difficult to estimate, but it is believed to be stable for now.

Interesting Facts:

  1. Size Comparison: The Bee Hummingbird is often compared to the common honeybee, which is where it gets its name. It is so small that it can hover in front of flowers, just like a bee, feeding on nectar.

  2. Metabolism: It has the fastest metabolism of any bird species. Its heart rate can exceed 1,200 beats per minute when hovering, and it requires an enormous amount of energy to maintain this activity.

  3. Short Lifespan: The Bee Hummingbird has a relatively short lifespan, with most individuals living for about 3 to 5 years, though many do not survive their first year.

  4. Incredible Agility: Apart from hovering, the Bee Hummingbird is also capable of rapid backward flight, a unique ability that is shared by only a few other species of birds.

Conclusion:

The Bee Hummingbird is a marvel of nature, combining extraordinary flight capabilities, tiny size, and beautiful iridescence. It is an excellent example of evolutionary adaptation, finely tuned to its ecological niche. Despite its diminutive size, it plays an essential role in pollination and contributes to the biodiversity of the regions it inhabits. This tiny, agile bird continues to captivate birdwatchers and nature enthusiasts around the world with its beauty and remarkable abilities.


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Saturday, 23 November 2024

Resplendent Quetzal The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is one of the most iconic and beautiful birds in the world. Famous for its vibrant, iridescent feathers and long tail, this bird has captured the imaginations of people around the globe, particularly in Central America. Revered for its cultural and symbolic significance, it is also an important part of the ecosystems where it lives.

 



2. Physical Characteristics

Size and Appearance

The Resplendent Quetzal is a medium-sized bird, with males measuring between 36-40 cm (14-16 inches) in length. However, the most striking feature of the male is its tail feathers, which can extend up to 65 cm (about 26 inches), giving it a dramatic appearance. Females are typically smaller, with a body length of around 35 cm and shorter tail feathers.

The male quetzal boasts bright, iridescent green and turquoise feathers that shimmer in the sunlight, providing a visually stunning display. Their chests are red, with the rest of the body including their back and wings being a deep, metallic green. The tail feathers of the male quetzal are particularly long, thin, and iridescent, adding to the bird’s grandeur. The female quetzal, while still beautiful, has a more subdued color palette, with duller green plumage and shorter, less dramatic tail feathers. Both males and females have white underparts, although the males' coloration is far more vivid.

Head and Crests

The male has a distinct crest of long, wispy feathers on its head, contributing to its majestic appearance. These feathers flow backwards, giving the bird an almost regal look. Both males and females possess a similar facial structure, featuring a short, hooked beak and large, expressive eyes.

Feathers and Iridescence

One of the most amazing features of the Resplendent Quetzal is its iridescence. The feathers are coated with microscopic structures that reflect light in different ways, allowing the feathers to shine and shimmer in bright light. The quetzal’s feathers often appear green, but they can shift to shades of blue, gold, and red depending on the angle of the light, making it one of the most visually striking species of bird in the world.

3. Habitat and Range

Geographic Range

The Resplendent Quetzal is native to the mountainous regions of Central America. It is found in cloud forests at high altitudes ranging from 1,200 meters (about 4,000 feet) to 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) above sea level. This bird primarily inhabits areas in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. The dense cloud forests provide a humid and sheltered environment, ideal for the quetzal's survival.

Forest Preferences

Resplendent Quetzals are typically found in tropical and subtropical cloud forests characterized by consistent moisture, frequent mists, and lush vegetation. These forests provide the perfect conditions for the bird, offering a high level of humidity and abundant resources. The dense vegetation also offers protection from predators.

The quetzal is known to inhabit primary forests, but it is also found in secondary forests, provided the habitat has been sufficiently undisturbed. Due to their reliance on specific conditions, the Resplendent Quetzal is vulnerable to habitat degradation caused by deforestation and human encroachment.

Altitude and Microhabitats

The Resplendent Quetzal is highly adapted to life at high altitudes. The cloud forests in which it lives are typically cooler and misty, making these environments rich in mosses, orchids, and various plants. The quetzal is often found in the mid to upper canopy layers of the forest, where it can forage for food and nest in the tall trees.

4. Diet and Feeding Habits

Primary Diet

The Resplendent Quetzal is a frugivore, primarily feeding on fruits, particularly the wild avocado (family Lauraceae), which is a favorite food. Other fruits that make up its diet include berries, bananas, and other native fruits found in the cloud forest. The quetzal’s long, powerful beak allows it to reach fruit in the canopy and consume it with ease.

Insects and Other Foods

Though fruits make up the majority of its diet, the Resplendent Quetzal is known to supplement its intake with insects, small vertebrates, and even small frogs. It has been observed hunting insects like beetles and caterpillars, as well as feeding on lizards and other small prey when fruit is scarce.

The quetzal's diet contributes to its role in the ecosystem, especially as a seed disperser. As it consumes fruits and berries, it inadvertently spreads the seeds across its environment, assisting in the propagation of various plant species.

5. Behavior and Ecology

Nesting and Reproduction

Resplendent Quetzals generally nest in cavities of large trees, particularly in areas where the forest remains undisturbed. The quetzals prefer hollow trunks or branches that provide the necessary protection for their eggs. The breeding season typically spans from March to June, when the birds are most active in searching for suitable nesting sites.

The female lays 1-2 eggs, which both parents take turns incubating. During this time, the male often displays its vibrant plumage to attract attention from females. The incubation period is typically around 18-20 days, and once hatched, the chicks are fed by both parents. The young quetzals are cared for until they are old enough to fend for themselves, usually by around 3-4 weeks of age.

Flight and Movement

Quetzals are not migratory birds, but they are known to move seasonally depending on the availability of food. They tend to stay in their home ranges throughout the year, though they may relocate to other parts of their habitat to find food or shelter during different seasons. Their flight is strong and direct, often flying between trees at great speeds.

Social Structure

The Resplendent Quetzal is generally a solitary bird, though it may form small groups during the non-breeding season, especially when resources are abundant. However, during the breeding season, males and females pair up, and the males engage in courtship displays.

6. Cultural Significance

The Resplendent Quetzal has been a symbol of freedom and beauty for thousands of years. It holds significant cultural and spiritual importance to indigenous groups in Central America, particularly the Maya and Aztec civilizations.

Mayan and Aztec Symbolism

To the ancient Maya, the quetzal was a sacred bird, often associated with the deity Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent, who was the god of wind, rain, and wisdom. The bird’s vivid feathers were used in ceremonial regalia and the creation of sacred items. It was believed that the quetzal’s feathers were a symbol of royalty and spiritual power.

In Aztec culture, the quetzal was also seen as a divine bird, and its feathers were highly prized for use in ceremonial garments, crowns, and ritual objects.

National Symbol of Guatemala

The Resplendent Quetzal is the national bird of Guatemala and appears on the country's flag and coat of arms. It is also considered a symbol of freedom and independence. The bird’s name, quetzal, comes from the Nahuatl word for the bird, and it holds an important place in Guatemalan culture and identity.

7. Conservation Status

Threats to Survival

The Resplendent Quetzal faces several threats in the wild, primarily from deforestation and the destruction of its natural cloud forest habitat. Logging, agriculture, and urban expansion have led to a significant reduction in the bird's natural environment. Additionally, the bird’s reliance on specific food sources, such as wild avocados, means that any environmental disruption can have an immediate impact on its survival.

Conservation Efforts

The Resplendent Quetzal is currently classified as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Conservation efforts are in place to protect its remaining habitats. These efforts include habitat restoration, eco-tourism initiatives, and local education about the importance of preserving the cloud forests. Governments and environmental organizations are working together to mitigate the impacts of deforestation by creating protected areas and promoting sustainable land use.

Ecotourism and Protection

Ecotourism has become a significant tool in preserving the quetzal’s habitat. By attracting tourists to areas where the bird can be observed in the wild, local communities are given financial incentives to protect these natural habitats. Many national parks in Central America, such as Volcán de la Hoya in Guatemala, are dedicated to preserving the quetzal and its ecosystem.

8. Conclusion

The Resplendent Quetzal is not only an awe-inspiring bird due to its beauty, but also a symbol of the rich cultural and ecological heritage of Central America. It continues to hold significance in the spiritual and cultural practices of many indigenous communities, while also playing.


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Friday, 15 November 2024

The Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) is a tern in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Europe (as far south as Brittany), Asia, and North America (as far south as Massachusetts).

What is special about Arctic Tern?



 The species is strongly migratory, seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later. Recent studies have shown average annual round-trip lengths of about 70,900 km (44,100 mi) for birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland and about 48,700 km (30,300 mi) for birds nesting in the Netherlands. These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic tern nests once every one to three years (depending on its mating cycle).

Arctic terns are medium-sized birds. They have a length of 28–39 cm (11–15 in) and a wingspan of 65–75 cm (26–30 in).[3] They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red/orange beak and feet, white forehead, a black nape and crown (streaked white), and white cheeks. The grey mantle is 305 mm (12.0 in), and the scapulae are fringed brown, some tipped white. The upper wing is grey with a white leading edge, and the collar is completely white, as is the rump. The deeply forked tail is whitish, with grey outer webs.

Arctic terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age. They eat mainly fish and small marine invertebrates. The species is abundant, with an estimated two million individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known, exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its ranges.

Etymology

[edit]

The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern".[4] The specific paradisaea is from Late Latin paradisus, "paradise".[5] The Scots names pictarnie,[6] tarrock[7] and their many variants are also believed to be onomatopoeic, derived from the distinctive call.[8] Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species, all the informal common names are shared with the common tern.[9]

Distribution and migration

[edit]

The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution; there are no recognized subspecies. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of North America and Eurasia during the northern summer. During the southern summer, it can be found at sea, reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice.[10]

The Arctic tern is famous for its migration; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year. The shortest distance between these areas is 19,000 km (12,000 mi). The long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet.[11] One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves an Arctic tern ringed as an unfledged chick on the Farne IslandsNorthumberland, UK, in the northern summer of 1982 that reached Melbourne, Australia in October, just three months after fledging – a journey of more than 22,000 km (14,000 mi).[12] Another example is that of a chick ringed in LabradorCanada, on 23 July 1928. It was found in South Africa four months later.[13]

A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not unusual for the species. In fact, the study showed that previous research had seriously underestimated the annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern. Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered 70,900 km (44,100 mi) on average in a year, with a maximum of 81,600 km (50,700 mi).[14] The difference from previous estimates is due to the birds taking meandering courses rather than following a straight route as was previously assumed. The birds follow a somewhat convoluted course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds.[15] The average Arctic tern lives about 30 years and will, based on the above research, travel some 2.4 million km (1.5 million mi) during its lifetime, the equivalent of a roundtrip from Earth to the Moon more than three times.[16]

A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the Netherlands[17] shows average annual migrations of c. 48,700 km (30,300 mi). On their way south, these birds roughly followed the coastlines of Europe and Africa.[18]

Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season.[19]

Description and taxonomy

The Arctic tern is a medium-sized bird around 33–36 cm (13–14 in) from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. The wingspan is 76–85 cm (30–33 in).[19] The weight is 86–127 g (3.0–4.5 oz). The beak is dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic tern has high aspect ratio wings and a tail with a deep fork.[19]

The adult plumage is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker.[19]

Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers.[19] During their first summer, juveniles also have a whiter forecrown.[20]

The species has a variety of calls; the two most common being the alarm call, made when possible predators (such as humans or other mammals) enter the colonies, and the advertising call.[21]

While the Arctic tern is similar to the common and roseate terns, its colouring, profile, and call are slightly different. Compared to the common tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic tern's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the roseate.[22]

This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the South American (Sterna hirundinacea), Kerguelen (S. virgata), and Antarctic (S. vittata) terns.[23]

The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species, Sterna portlandica and Sterna pikei.[24]

Reproduction

Breeding begins around the third or fourth year.[25] Arctic terns mate for life and, in most cases, return to the same colony each year.[26] Courtship is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time.[27] Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings. After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.[27]

Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this.[27] Breeding takes place in colonies on coasts, islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water. It often forms mixed flocks with the common tern. It lays from one to three eggs per clutch, most often two.[19]

It is one of the most aggressive terns, fiercely defensive of its nest and young. It will attack humans and large predators, usually striking the top or back of the head. Although it is too small to cause serious injury to an animal of a human's size, it is still capable of drawing blood, and is capable of repelling many raptorial birds, polar bears[28] and smaller mammalian predators such as foxes and cats.[11]

The nest is usually a depression in the ground, which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials. The eggs are mottled and camouflaged.[19] Both sexes share incubation duties. The young hatch after 22–27 days and fledge after 21–24 days.[19] If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently the incubation period could be extended to as long as 34 days.[21]

When hatched, the chicks are downy. Being precocial, the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching.[29] Usually they do not stray far from the nest. Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching.[30] Both parents care for hatchlings.[19] Chick diets always include fish, and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves.[21] Males bring more food than females. Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly.[19] After fledging, the juveniles learn to feed themselves, including the difficult method of plunge-diving.[31] They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents.[32]

Arctic terns are long-lived birds that spend considerable time raising only a few young, and are thus said to be K-selected.[33] A 1957 study in the Farne Islands estimated an annual survival rate of 82%.[34]

Ecology and behaviour

The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually carnivorous. In most cases, it eats small fish or marine crustaceans.[10][19] Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet, and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food. Prey species are immature (1–2-year-old) shoaling species such as herringcodsandlances, and capelin.[11] Among the marine crustaceans eaten are amphipodscrabs and krill. Sometimes, these birds also eat molluscs, marine worms, or berries, and on their northern breeding grounds, insects.[29]

Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They may also chase insects in the air when breeding.[29] It is also thought that Arctic terns may, in spite of their small size, occasionally engage in kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches.[29] Several species are targeted—conspecifics, other terns (like the common tern), and some auk and grebe species.[21]

While nesting, Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals.[10] Besides being a competitor for nesting sites, the larger herring gull steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites.[31] Scientists have experimented with bamboo canes erected around tern nests. Although they found fewer predation attempts in the caned areas than in the control areas, canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt.[35] While feeding, skuas, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food.[36]


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Wednesday, 6 November 2024

Wandering albatrosses are among the largest birds in the New Zealand marine area, surpassed only slightly by the southern royal albatross for size. Together, these are the largest of the great albatrosses, of which four species occur in New Zealand waters. The wandering albatross is most similar to the slightly smaller and darker Antipodean albatross, and the two are often lumped together as one species under the wandering albatross name. Here we use wandering albatross to refer only to the larger form that does not breed in the New Zealand region (other than a few pairs on Macquarie Island).

New Zealand status:
Conservation status:
Other names:

snowy albatross

Geographical variation:

Nil





Information 

Great albatrosses have an impressive wingspan and slow gliding flight, which distinguishes them from other smaller groups (e.g. gulls and mollymawks). They are normally found offshore, but can be seen in southern New Zealand waters and northwards to Cook Strait, and in lower numbers further north. Care is needed to separate wandering and Antipodean albatrosses, as their plumage markings overlap almost completely. The most reliable distinguishing characteristics are the larger size, and especially the larger bill of the true wanderer.

Identification

The adult wandering albatross is a very large white bird with variable amounts of black on the enormous (3 m wingspan) wings and a pinkish-salmon coloured bill. Some adults have a pinkish stain behind the ears. The wandering albatross has numerous, graduated plumage phases, from chocolate brown juveniles with white faces and underwings through to mature males that are pure white apart from their black wing tips and trailing edge to the wing. At close range, even the whitest birds usually have fine dark vermiculations on their body feathers (not present in the royal albatrosses). Most wandering albatrosses (and Antipodean albatrosses) have upper wings that are either completely dark or have a large white patch in the centre of the inner wing that expands as the bird gets older. All but the whitest colour variations of wandering albatross are also seen in the Antipodean albatross, which is slightly smaller with a smaller bill, most apparent if the birds settle on the water together.

Voice: wandering albatrosses are mainly silent at sea. At breeding grounds they give a high-pitched trumpeting call, and also groans, rattles, and ‘puck’ sounds.

Similar species: the two royal albatross species are bulkier birds with a hunch-backed look in flight, and a fine dark cutting edge to the upper mandible (this can be difficult to see in flying birds). Royal albatrosses are much whiter birds, and (except for juvenile northern royal albatrosses) rarely have dark feathers anywhere other than the upperwings, which tend to whiten from the leading edge back, looking like the bird has flown through a bag of flour (cf. wandering and Antipodean albatrosses whitening from the centre of the wing outwards). Antipodean albatrosses (including Gibson’s albatross) never get as white as the whitest wandering albatrosses, and usually have at least a dark skull cap. Other than mature ‘snowy’ male wandering albatrosses, the two species can only be separated by size, with Antipodean albatross smaller with a shorter and less robust bill. Extra-limital Tristan albatross and Amsterdam albatross have the same plumage states as Antipodean albatross, though Amsterdam albatross has a dark cutting edge to the upper mandible.

Distribution and habitat

Wandering albatrosses breed on South Georgia and on Crozet, Kerguelen, Marion, Prince Edward, Heard and Macquarie Islands, and range throughout the Southern Ocean in latitudes from Antarctic to subtropical waters. Non-breeding birds from the Crozet Islands (and to a lesser extent other populations) frequent New Zealand waters. Non-breeding birds from the Crozet Islands (breeders in their sabbatical year, and pre-breeding birds) may spend extensive periods in the deep waters in both the Tasman Sea and the eastern waters of New Zealand from the subantarctic to latitudes around East Cape.

Population

Wandering albatrosses breed outside of the New Zealand region, in the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans and at Macquarie Island south-west of New Zealand. A global population of c. 8050 breeds biannually.

Threats and conservation

Threats to wandering albatrosses at breeding sites are few, as they breed mainly on sites with few or no predators. Threats in the marine environment consist principally of fisheries interactions, with population decreases linked to fishing mortality, particularly in longline fisheries. Recent studies have shown strong life-history consequences of inter-decadal changes in wind patterns, with stronger winds in the southern latitudes leading to reduced effort required for foraging by breeding birds, and positive population consequences.

Breeding

Breeding occurs only outside of New Zealand and begins in the Austral spring, continuing for 8-10 months, depending on the site. Wandering albatrosses breed as monogamous pairs no more than once every two years, and have long-term pair bonds. The single large egg is laid in December or early January and is incubated by the parents in alternating shifts for about 11 weeks, with most hatching in March. The chick takes another 7-9 months to fledge; as the full breeding cycle takes 10-12 months, the adults then take a sabbatical year to complete their moult before attempting to breed again. Immature birds return to colonies when 6-10 years old, and typically do not start breeding until 11-15 years old.

Behaviour and ecology

Wandering albatrosses are solitary at sea, though may feed in flocks in association with fishing vessels.

Food

The wandering albatross is essentially a scavenger, feeding on squid (especially) and marine fishes, and mainly within a few metres of the surface. Most prey is captured by surface seizing.

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